Virtudes epistêmicas como uma vacina contra fake news

Autores

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51359/2357-9986.2022.253896

Palavras-chave:

fake news, epistemologia da virtude, virtudes epistêmicas, virtudes intelectuais, conhecimento, educação

Resumo

Vivemos em uma época em que, não bastasse a pandemia, a sociedade encontra-se assolada por aquilo que a OMS chamou de uma infodemia e, interligado a isso, ameaças constantes ao que nos resta de democracia. As fake news, como alguns têm observado, influenciou imensamente os rumos da pandemia e, já antes, os rumos da política. Diante desse grave problema, deparamo-nos com a necessidade prática de uma vacina contra as fake news. O presente trabalho é um esforço no sentido de caracterizar e argumentar em favor do cultivo do caráter epistemicamente virtuoso como parte de uma solução ao problema das fake news, solução baseada na epistemologia da virtude (numa combinação das formulações por Zagzebski e Sosa), além de sob a matriz do pensamento sistêmico (Morin). Para tanto, após uma análise do conceito de fake news, apresentamos elementos de nossa leitura da epistemologia da virtude. Em seguida, procuramos esboçar o papel das virtudes epistêmicas ou intelectuais numa diminuição da curva de fake news, em conjunto com certas outras medidas que já têm sido adotadas paliativamente contra essa praga. 

Referências

ARISTOTLE. Nicomachean Ethics (R. C. Bartlett e S. D. Collins, Trad.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2011.

AUSTIN, J. L. How to do things with words. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. BAEHR, J. The inquiring mind: On intellectual virtues and virtue epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

BAEHR, J. Is intellectual character growth a realistic educational aim? Journal of Moral Education, 45, pp. 117-131, 2016.

BARCLAY, D. A. Fake news, propaganda, and plain old lies: How to find trustworthy information in the digital age. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.

BATTALY, H. Virtue Epistemology. Philosophy Compass, 3/4, pp. 639–66, 2008.

BENNETT, M. R., & HACKER, P. M. Philosophical foundations of neuroscience. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

CLARK, M. Knowledge and grounds: A comment on Mr. Gettier’s paper. Analysis, 24, 1963, pp. 46-48.

COHEN, S. Justification and truth. Philosophical Studies, 46, 1984, pp. 279- 295.

DAY, A. Satire and dissent: Interventions in contemporary political debate. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011.

DESCARTES, R. Meditações sobre filosofia primeira (F. Castilho, Trad.). Campinas: Ed. da Unicamp, 1641/2004.

DEWEY, J. Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillian Company, 1922.

EGELHOFER, J. L.; LECHELER, S. Fake news as a twodimensional phenomenon: A framework and research agenda. Annals of the International, 43, pp. 97-116, 2019.

FARKAS, J.; SCHOU, J. Post-truth, fake news and democracy: Mapping the politics of falsehood. New York: Routledge, 2020.

FLORIDI, L. The philosophy of information. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

FRANKFURT, H. G. On bullshit. In: The importance of what we care about (pp. 117-133). New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

FREIRE, P. Pedagodia do oprimido. Rio de Janeiro: Paz & Terra.

GALHARDI, C. P. et al. Fato ou Fake? Uma análise da desinformação frente à pandemia da Covid-19 no Brasil. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 25, n. Suplemento 2, pp. 4201-4210, 2020.

GETTIER, E. L. Is justified true belief knowledge? Analysis, 23, 1963, pp. 121-123.

GINET, C. Knowledge, perception, and memory. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1975.

GOLDMAN, A. I. Discrimination and perceptual knowledge. Journal of Philosophy, 73, 1976, pp. 771-791.

GOLDMAN, A. I. What is justified belief? In G. S. Pappas (Ed.), Justification and knowledge (pp. 1-23). Dordrecht: Reidel, 1979.

GOLDMAN, A. I. Epistemic folkways and scientific epistemology. Philosophical Issues, 3, 1993, pp. 271-285.

HABERMAS, J. Diskursethik: Notizen zu Begründungsprogramm. In Moralbewußtsein und kommunikatives Handeln (pp. 53-126). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1983.

HEERSMINK, R. A virtue epistemology of the Internet: Search engines, intellectual virtues and education. Social Epistemology, 32, pp. 1-12, 2018.

HIGDON, N. The anatomy of fake News: A critical news literacy education. Oakland: University of California Press, 2020.

HOOKS, B. Teaching to transgress: Education as a practice of freedom. New York: Routledge.

ICHIKAWA, J. J., & STEUP, M. The analysis of knowledge. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2017. Disponível em: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis

KOTZEE, B. The intellectual goals of character education. Philosophy of Education, p. 315-324, 2016.

KOTZEE, B. Dewey as virtue epistemologist: Open-mindedness and the training of thought in Democracy and Education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 52, pp. 359-373, 2018.

MCCLENNEN, S. A.; MAISEL, R. M. Is satire saving our nation? Mockery and American politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.

MCINTYRE, L. C. Post-truth. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2018.

MCNAIR, B. Fake news: Falsehood, fabrication and fantasy in journalism. Oxon: Routledge, 2018.

MORIN, E. Introduction à la pensée complexe. Paris: Seuil, 2005.

MORONI, J. (2021). Fake news e colonialidade de mentes: Considerações via paradigma da complexidade. Perspectiva Filosófica, 48, pp. 348-387. PLATÃO. Mênon (M. Iglésias, Trad.). Rio de Janeiro: PUC-Rio/Ed. Loyola, 2001.

PRICHARD, D. What is this thing called knowledge? (3rd ed.). London: Routledge, 2014.

PRITCHARD, D. Epistemic virtue and the epistemology of education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 47, pp. 236-247, 2013.

PRITCHARD, D. Good news, bad news, fake news. In: BERNECKER, S.; FLOWERREE, A. K.; GRUNDMANN, T. (Eds.), The epistemology of fake news (pp. 46-67). Oxford University Press: New York, 2021.

RACHLIN, H. Behavior and mind: The roots of modern psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

RIGGS, W. D. Open-mindedness, insight, and understanding. In: BAEHR, J. (Eds.), Intellectual virtues and education: Essays in applied virtue epistemology. New York: Routledge, 2016. p. 18-37.

RYLE, G. The concept of mind. London: Hutchinson, 1949. SCOTT, K. The political propaganda of 44-30 B. C. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 11, pp. 7-49, 1933.

SANTOS, G. F. Social media, disinformation, and regulation of the electoral process: a study based on 2018 Brazilian election experience. Revista de Investigações Constitucionais. 7, pp. 429-449, 2020.

SILVA FILHO, W. Pessoas epistemicamente virtuosas: Resenha sobre Epistemologia da Virtude, de E. Sosa. Philósophos, 18, pp. 293-312, 2013. SOSA, E. The raft and the pyramid: Coherence versus foundations in the theory of knowledge. In Knowledge in perspective: Selected essays in epistemology (pp. 165-191). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980/1991a.

SOSA, E. Knowledge in perspective: Selected essays in epistemology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991b.

SOSA, E. A virtue epistemology: Apt belief and reflective knowledge (Vol. 1). New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

SOSA, E. Representations, judgments, and the swamping problem for reliabilism: Why the problem applies to process reliabilism, but not to virtue reliabilism. Trans/Form/Ação, 44, 2021, pp. 19-24.

TANDOC, E. C. J.; LIM, Z. W.; LING, R. Defining ‘fake news’. Digital Journalism, 6, pp. 137-153, 2018.

TOROSYAN, R. Public discourse and the Stewart model of critical thinking. In: HOLT, J. (Ed.), The Daily Show and philosophy: Moments of zen in the art of fake news (pp. 107-120). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007.

TURRI, J.; ALFANO, M. Virtue epistemology. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2017. Disponível em: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue

WARDLE, C.; DERAKHSHAN, H. Reflexão sobre a “desordem da informação”: Formatos da informação incorreta, desinformação e má informação. In: IRETON, C.; POSETTI, J. (Eds.), Jornalismo, fake news, e desinformação (pp. 46-58). Paris: Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura, 2019.

WARDLE, C.; DERAKHSHAN, H. Thinking about ‘information disorder’: Formats of misinformation, disinformation, and mal-information. In: IRETON, C.; POSETTI, J. (Eds.), Journalism, 'fake news' and disinformation (pp. 44-56). Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2018.

WATSON, L. Educating for good questioning: A tool for intellectual virtues education. Acta Analytica, 33, pp. 353-370, 2018.

WATSON, L. Why should we educate for inquisitiveness? In: BAEHR, J. (Ed.), Intellectual virtues and education: Essays in applied virtue epistemology (pp. 38-53). New York: Routledge, 2016.

WHO et al. Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Promoting healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from misinformation and disinformation. World Health Organization, 2020. Disponivel em: . Acesso em: 27 ago. 2021.

ZAGZEBSKI, L. Virtues of the mind: An inquiry into the nature of virtue and the ethical foundations of knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

ZAGZEBSKI, L. What is knowledge? In J. Greco & E. Sosa (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to epistemology (pp. 92-116). Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999.

Downloads

Publicado

2022-05-03

Edição

Seção

Dossiê temático sobre Epistemologia, Filosofia da Ciência e Naturalismo